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ECONOMIC
AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS:
The Ganga economy was essentially based on agriculture,
and naturally the village was the pivot around which the
economy revolved. Peasant proprietary was in vogue in the
Ganga period, although the waste land and the forest belonged
to the State. The Government gave grants of land to the
civil servants, to the Brahmins for their learning or piety,
to the soldiers for their sacrifices. Often these lands
were leased out to the tillers of the soil by the donees
and thus a Zamindari tradition was gradually built up. There
are also evidences of collective ownership of land in the
Ganga period. Variety of crops were grown and the Government
evinced keen interest in the promotion of agriculture by
reclaiming waste lands, digging wells and tanks and constructing
embankments and so on. The urban economy was dominated by
several industries and vocational groups who were organized
into guilds or Srenis. They must have attained considerable
bargaining power by their compact organizational power.
they developed their codes of conduct, acted as bankers,
participated in the cultural life and in general, gave a
boost to corporate existence.
The
Brahmins enjoyed a place of honour in society. They were
the recipients of most grants for their piety, and for their
learning. They were also exempted from certain taxes and
extreme punishment. The ruling class which goes by the name
Kshatriya also enjoyed certain privileges. The Vaishyas,
though considered inferior, had money-power and were organized
into guilds. The Sudras suffered their customary inferiority
in the social hierarchy. New castes had also came into existence
on the occupational basis. Women were considered respectable
and the upper class women showed enterprise in politics,
war or administration. Educationally too, they had made
mark. However, there were prostitutes in the cities and
Devadasis in temples, and Sati was not unknown in the Ganga
period. The society also nourished certain customs like
Sallekhana or suicide by starvation, and voluntary ending
of one's life as a token of intense loyalty to the King.
CULTURAL
CONTRIBUTIONS:
The Ganga period witnessed the popularity of Jainism and
Vedic religion. Scholars like Lewis Rice, S. R. Sharma or
M. V. Krishna Rao, believed that the Ganga rulers were Jains,
and that a Jaina Acharya, Simhanadi, was instrumental in
founding the Kingdom. But it appears that the early Ganga
rulers were the followers of Vedic religion, worshipping
Vishnu or Shiva, or celebrating Vedic sacrifices. Dr. S.
Srikanta Sastri was of the opinion that Durvinita was a
Vaishnava. Inscriptions speak of the Kalamukhas, Pasupatas
and Lokayatas who flourished in Gangavadi. However, from
the time of Shivamara II, the Ganga rulers appear to have
embraced Jainism. Perhaps his contacts with the Jaina saints
and Philosophers like Toranacharya and Pushpanandi must
have contributed to this change in faith. In fact, the Ganga
period witnessed the activities of several Jaina saints
and scholars like Pujyapada, Jinasena, Ajitasena, Akalanka
or Nemichandrasiddanta. Many Jaina basadis were built at
Manne, Sravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The great minister
Chavundaraya was a champion of Jainism and the Gomata monolith
at Sravanabelagola is a standing testimony to his religious
fervour. However, whether the followers of Vedic religion
or of Jainism, the Ganga monarchs always remained tolerant
in their religious attitude.
Education
was imparted in the Agraharas, Brahmapuris, Ghatikas and
in Mathas. Vedas, Vedangas, the Dharmasastras, the Smritis
and the Puranas were taught as part of religious studies.
Among the secular subjects, mention may be made of the six
systems of Philosophy, Itihasas, Vyakarana, poetry, medicine,
astrology, music, archery and so on. Vocational education
was promoted through craft guilds.
The
Ganga period was one of brisk literary activity, in Sanskrit,
Prakrit and Kannada. Many Kings of this period were Scholars
and writers of repute. Madhava II wrote Dattaka Sutra, a
treatise on erotics. Durvinita, whose literary prowess is
mentioned in the Kavirajamarga, was a great author. He translated
Gunadya's Vaddakatha into Sanskrit, wrote a commentary on
the 15th sarga of Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya and wrote Sabdavatara,
a Sanskrit work on grammar. Sripurusha wrote Gajasastra,
a treatise on elephants. Shivamara II was the author of
Gajashtaka, a Kannada work on elephant management, and Sethubandha
in Prakrit. A number of Scholars of great reputation flourished
in the Ganga period. The redoubtable Bharavi is believed
to have visited the Court of Durvinita. Pujyapada was the
author of Sarvathasiddi and Jinendra Vyakarana. Hemasena
or Vidya Dhananjaya was patronized by Butuga II and he wrote
Raghavpandaviya. His pupil Vidhibhasimha was the author
of Gadyachintamani and Kshatrachudamani. Chavundaraya, the
famous Ganga minister, was the author of Chavundarayapurana.
He is also believed to have patronized Ranna during his
early days and also the Kannada grammarian Gunavarma. Nagavarma,
the author of Chandombhudhi, is said to have been patronized
by Rakkasaganga. In short, the Gangas offered a very fertile
ground for literary cultivation, and it certainly yielded
a wholesome harvest.
ART
AND ARCHITECTURE:
The Gangas made significant contribution to Karnataka heritage
in the realm of art and architecture. Scholars think that
there was a considerable impact of the Pallava as well as
the early Chalukyan style on the Ganga constructions. It
is also pointed out that the Ganga architecture is predominantly
Jaina. A number of monuments have survived to mirror the
Ganga tradition of architecture. The Kapileswara temple
at Manne, the Hanumantesvara temple at Bannur, the Rameswara
temple at Narasamangala are some of the monuments of the
early Ganga period. The Bhoganandi shrine at Nandi is a
beautiful shrine with lovely sculptures and an exquisite
tower. Talkad, the Ganga capital has a few temples like
the Maralesvara temple, the Arakesvara temple, the Patalesvara
temple or the Mahalingesvara temple. In the Tamil country
too a few Ganga structures have been identified, like the
Koranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur and Mahimalesvara
temple at Erode. Among other Ganga temples of importance,
mention may be made of the Mahalingesvara temple at Varuna,
the Kallesvara temple at Aralaguppe, the Yoga Narasimha
temple at Dadiga and Dadigesvara temple at Kodihalli.
The
Jaina monuments are mostly centered around the two hillocks
namely Vindhyagiri and Chandragiri in Sravanabelagola. Of
these, the Chandraprabha basadi belongs to the period of
Shivamara II, and is a beautiful structure with a Garbhagriha,
a Sukhanasi, a Navaranga and a porch. The Iruve-Brahmadeva
temple is a small shrine which belongs to the 9th century
A. D. the Chavundaraya basadi (10th century) is one of the
largest structures in the area, and is dedicated to Neminatha.
Its Vimana has two more storeys, in addition to the lower
storey, which is long. The Panchakuta basadi at Kambadahalli
is another fine monument of this period. Rajamalla I constructed
a cave Jaina temple at Vallimalai in Chittore district.
The
erection of free-standing pillars constitutes an interesting
feature of the Ganga art. These Jaina pillars are of two
types namely, Manasthambas and Brahmasthambhas or Brahmadeva
pillars. Manasthambhas, also known as Indrasthamba pillars
are those which have a pavilion at the top, which contains
the Jaina figures facing four different directions. In the
Brahmasthambha, the Jaina figure is substituted by a seated
figure of Brahma at the top. The huge Brahmadeva pillar
at Chandragiri in Sravanabelagola and the Tyagada Brahmadeva
pillar at Vindhyagiri of the same place are the two examples
of the free-standing pillars of this period. Dr. Vincent
Smith extols their beauty when he says, " In the whole range
of Indian art, there is nothing perhaps equal to the pillars
for good taste".
The
Ganga temples and basadis provide ample evidences to the
growing maturity of their sculptural art. Even their inscriptions
offer excellent sculptural pieces. The Atkur inscription
depicts a scene of fight between a hound and a boar; the
Doddahundi inscription depicts the scene of Nitimarga's
death, and it has all the elements of dignity and pathos
befitting the occasion.
The
crowning achievement of the Ganga sculptural art is the
statue of Gomatesvara at Vindhyagiri in Sravanabelagola.
It is 57 feet high, hardly 10 foot less than the statue
of Sphinx of Egypt. It was carved out of the mighty granite
outcrop, at orders of the Ganga minister Chavundaraya, and
the work was completed in 984 A. D. Entirely nude, this
Indian colossus stands erect, facing the north, with square
face, curly locks, elongated ear-lobes, broad shoulders
and a small waist. The half-closed eyes indicate the saint's
meditative mood, while his lips exuding a gentle smile seems
to tell us how transient the affairs of the world are.
Gomata
stands with an expression wonderfully calm, serene and divinely
radiant, silently preaching to the sinning world the basic
necessities of detachment, patience and love to attain happiness
in this world and beyond. Venkoba Rao has described it as
a crowning achievement of Indian art, and the noblest creation
of man in praise of God. As Percy Brown has pointed out,
through the surge and stress of over a thousand years, this
solemn and impassive figure has defied elements, and the
high finish of its workmanship still remains. Surely Blake
had visions of such a monumental image when he wrote, "
…… Reared his mighty stature; on Earth stood his feet. His
naked limbs glittering upon the dark blue sky where the
Eagles cry and the Vultures laugh".
to
be continued...
Arthikaje
Mangalore. Click here if you would like to Contribute or send a feedback.
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